8. Summary and conclusions
http://www.hi.is/~oi/quaternary_glacial_history_of_antarctica.htm#Fig.%2016Detailed reconstruction of the glacial and climatic history of Antarctica since the LGM is hampered by the scarcity of available archives, low resolution in many datasets and chronological problems. Therefore, any synthesis (Fig. 17) must be regarded as a tentative description of the environmental development. However, the following broad pattern can be recognised:
a) There is evidence of much more extensive ice cover in Antarctica prior
to c. 20-14 ka BP. LGM glaciers from the WAIS and the Antarctic Peninsula generally grounded on the middle-outer shelf, at water depths of ³ 400 m, and were probably fringed by ice shelves extending over the outer shelf and the shelf break. East Antarctic glaciers expanded to mid-shelf positions, and in some areas there was little or no LGM glacial expansion.
b) Ice retreat from the LGM positions was under
way by 17-14 ka BP. The initial ice retreat was probably eustatically-controlled.
c) Deglaciation occurred mainly during the time period >
14-6 ka BP. Outer- and middle shelf areas deglaciated between 14-8 ka BP, while most inner shelf areas, fjords, bays and most currently ice-free coastal land areas deglaciated prior to 8-6 ka BP. This suggests that Antarctica could have contributed to global sea-level rise at least until mid-Holocene times (cf. Flemming et al., 1998; Ingólfsson & Hjort, 1999). There are signs in the East Antarctic record (Bunger Hills) that early Holocene glaciation may have been at least partly driven by rising temperatures.
d) There are no signs in Antarctica of a Younger Dryas glacial or cold climatic event.
e) The transition from glacial to interglacial conditions in Antarctica, indicated by ice configuration becoming similar to or less than at present, by the onset of lake sediment accumulation in ice-free basins, by moss-bank growth on the islands off the peninsula, and by penguin occupation of coastal rookeries,
was broadly completed by 6 ka BP. f) Mid-Holocene glacial- and ice-shelf re-advances have been described from a number of sites.
g) Terrestrial palaeoclimatic records, based on stratigraphical variables in lake- and moss-bank archives, as well as proliferation of penguin rookeries, suggest a circum-Antarctic climate optimum occurring broadly in the period 4,5-2.5 ka BP. It is best constrained in the stratigraphical records from the Antarctic Peninsula (4-3 ka BP), Bunger Hills in East Antactica (3,5-2,5 ka BP) and Victoria Land (3,6-2,6 ka BP). h) Available data suggest that after c. 2.5 ka BP a distinct Neoglacial cooling occurred, and that many glaciers and ice-shelves expanded during the late Holocene.
The Ross Ice Shelf probably continued retreating even after 2.5 ka BP and is still in a retreat mode. i)
A rapid and significant warming has occurred in the Antarctic Peninsula region for the past 100 years, which might be causing ice-shelf instability, and coastal areas in the Ross Sea also show signs of warming.
The interior East Antarctica is slightly cooling. The available data suggest that Antarctic deglaciation and Holocene climate development lagged that of the Northern Hemisphere (Hjort et al., 1998; Ingólfsson et al., 1998; Bentley, 1999; Hall & Denton, 1999, 2000). The late Holocene climate optimum, c. 4.5 2.5 ka BP is recognised as broadly synchronous environmental changes in the Antarctic Peninsula, East Antarctica and Victoria Land, which supports the notion of a circum-Antarctic climate optimum. This optimum is not recognised in the Antarctic ice cores. The ice-core records on Holocene climate variability from Byrd, Vostok and Taylor Dome differ considerably in terms of temperature trends for the past, 20 ka and through the Holocene (Blunier et al., 1998, Thompson et al., 1998, Petit et al., 1999, Steig et al., 1998, 2000), and cannot be used as proxies for environmental changes in the coastal areas of the continent. A study by Ciais et al. (1994) on Holocene temperature variations in Antarctica, as expressed by data from 6 ice-cores, indicated only subtle temperature variations (£±1oC) for the past 10 ka BP. Although that study recognised somewhat warmer-than-present conditions between c. 4 - 2 ka BP, it places the Antarctic Holocene climate optimum between c. 10 - 8 ka BP. The Palmer Deep record (Domack et al., 2001a), on the contrary, marks this as a period of cool climate. A study on 11 ice-core isotope records for the reconstruction of Holocene climate variability in Antarctica (Masson et al., 2000) likewise demonstrated a widespread early Holocene climate optimum (11.5 - 9 ka calibrated ice-core years: c. 10 - 8.5 ka radiocarbon years), in addition to a second period of climate amelioration in the Ross Sea area between 7 - 5 ka cal. yr BP (c. 6 - 4.5 ka radiocarbon years BP). These periods of relatively warm climate are not apparent in the geological stratigraphical record. The ice-core data further suggests an East Antarctic climate optimum between 6 - 3 ka cal. yr BP (Masson et al., 2000), whereas the geological record from Bunger Hill Oasis indicates the period 7.6 - 4.5 ka cal. yr BP as being relatively cold, and the climate optimum occurring between 3.5 - 2.5 ka cal. yr BP (Kulbe et al., 2001).
The large Antarctic system allows for significant regional variability in the Holocene development of climate and glaciation. Ice-core records from the high-altitude inland continental plateau may not respond to environmental changes in the peripheral maritime areas of the system. White & Steig (1998) suggested that the inland-plateau ice cores might not be entirely representative of Antarctic climate development, and that records from far more sites are needed to complete the story. Perhaps the poor fit between the ice-core and geological records is an illustration of just that problem.
Acknowledgements - This study and my fieldwork in Antarctica on five occasions since 1987 have been generously supported by the Swedish Natural Science Research Council, the Swedish Polar Research Secretariat, the Universities of Lund and Göteborg, Sweden and The University Centre on Svalbard (UNIS), which is gratefully acknowledged. The following institutions are thanked for providing logistics: Alfred Wegener Institute, Germany (1987), Argentinean Antarctic Institute (1993), National Science Foundation/USA (1994) and British Antarctic Survey (2000).
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